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1996; Flanagin et al., 2000). Our proposed model synthesizes these two
approaches, adding a new sub-theory: ‘media constructionism’ – constant
interaction between new and older media is a key factor in the successful or
unsuccessful evolution and specific direction of the new medium.
A second approach underlying our model is ‘Diffusion of Innovation’
(Beal and Bohlen, 1955), ‘the process by which an innovation [new ideas,
opinions, or products] is communicated through certain channels over time
among the members of social system’ (Rogers, 1983: 5; see also Burt, 1987;
Coleman et al., 1966; Granovetter, 1973, 1982; Rogers, 1962; Rogers and
Kincaid, 1981; Ryan and Gross, 1943; Valente, 1999). Our model relates to
how much time it takes to diffuse cumulatively and adopt new media, as
well as how many adopters exist at each stage. Rogers (1962) identified five
types of adopters, the first two being catalytic ‘Change Agents’: innovators
(2.5% on average), early adopters (13.5%), members of the early majority
(34%), members of the late majority (34%), and laggards (16%). The mass
media play a central role in innovation diffusion – especially when the
technology involves a communications medium. Thus, in our model each
specific medium is both the subject of study and an important part of the
objective social environment influencing the new medium’ s development –
once again, ‘media constructionism’.
Merrill and Lowenstein (1971) were the first to delineate a dynamic
model of media development, focusing on audience type: elite–popular–
specialized. First, a social elite adopts the new medium (Shinar, 2001, adds a
prior ‘experimental’ stage, in which a prototype is developed in the
laboratory), then the general public and finally sub-audiences using the
medium in a specialized fashion. Taking a different tack, Shaw’ s three-part
model (1991) uses a human metaphor for media development: youth,
maturity and senior citizenship, stressing the importance of media leaders in
responding creatively to technological advances, at all three stages.
Another historical schema is Caspi’ s (1993) condensed,
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four-stage media
development:
(1) inauguration – where much public attention is given to the new
medium;
(2) institutionalization – where there is widespread public adoption
and routinization of the new medium;
(3) defensiveness – where the hegemony is threatened by a new
medium; and
(4) adaptation – the modus vivendi between old and new medium.
His schema is itself loosely-based on models taken from the world of
marketing, especially product life-cycle (Hornik, 1985; Kotler, 1986; Kotler
and Hornik, 2000):
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